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September 2000
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................... xi
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1 Purpose................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.2 Background..........................................................................................................1-2
1.3 Scope.................................................................................................................... 1-9
1.4 Special Acknowledgement...................................................................................1-9
2. OVERVIEW OF STEEL MAKING AND PROCESSING................................................... 2-1
2.1 Steel Making ........................................................................................................2-1
2.1.1 Blast Furnace ........................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Open Hearth Furnace (OHF) Steel Making............................................. 2-2
2.1.3 Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Steel Making ........................................... 2-2
2.1.4 Electric Furnace Steel Making................................................................. 2-2
2.1.5 Ladle Metallurgy...................................................................................... 2-4
2.2 Steel Casting and Characteristics......................................................................... 2-5
2.2.1 Ingot Casting............................................................................................ 2-6
2.2.2 Continuous Casting.................................................................................. 2-6
2.3 Characteristics...................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.1 Microstructure.......................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.2 Steel Composition.................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.2.1 Killed and Semi-Killed Steels................................................... 2-8
2.3.2.2 Segregation ............................................................................. 2-10
2.3.2.2.1 Segregation and Other Defects in Ingot-Based
Products ................................................................ 2-10
2.3.3 Influence of Thermal History................................................................. 2-11
2.3.3.1 Phase Transformations............................................................ 2-11
2.3.3.2 Grain Growth .......................................................................... 2-13
2.3.4 Hot Rolling ............................................................................................ 2-13
2.4 Surface and Embedded Imperfections ............................................................... 2-15
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEELS ....................................................................... 3-1
3.1 Strength................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1.1 Stress-Strain Curves................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.2 Yield Strength and Tensile Strength........................................................ 3-2
3.1.3 Effects of Stress (Strain) State and Constraint on Strength ..................... 3-4
3.1.4 Effects of Temperature on Strength......................................................... 3-6
3.1.5 Effects of Loading Rates on Strength ...................................................... 3-7
3.2 Ductility ............................................................................................................... 3-9
3.2.1 Effects of Stress (Strain) State and Constraint on Ductility .................... 3-9
3.2.2 Effects of Temperature on Ductility ...................................................... 3-11
3.2.3 Effects of Loading Rate on Ductility..................................................... 3-12
3.3 Fracture Toughness............................................................................................3-12
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Table of Contents Base Metals and Fracture
iv
3.3.1 Charpy V-Notch Fracture Toughness .................................................... 3-13
3.3.2 Fracture Mechanics Concepts................................................................ 3-13
3.3.2.1 Effect of Stress (Strain) State and Constraint on Fracture
Toughness ............................................................................... 3-14
3.3.2.2 Effect of Temperature on Linear-Elastic Fracture
Toughness ............................................................................... 3-15
3.3.2.3 Effect of Loading Rate on Linear-Elastic Fracture
Toughness ............................................................................... 3-16
3.4 Effects of Plastic Deformation on Steel Properties ........................................... 3-17
4. TENSILE PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEELS ...................................................... 4-1
4.1 General................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.2 Mill Practice......................................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 Tensile Properties of Currently Produced Rolled Shapes.................................... 4-1
4.3.1 Effect of Coupon Location upon Yield Strength ..................................... 4-3
4.3.2 Effect of Strain Rate upon Yield Strength ............................................... 4-5
4.3.3 Yield to Tensile Strength Ratio ............................................................... 4-5
4.3.4 Inelastic Stress-Strain Behavior of Steels................................................ 4-6
4.4 Strength of Historic Steels ................................................................................... 4-7
4.5 Influence of Dual Graded Steels upon Expected Strength .................................. 4-9
4.5.1 Recommended Changes to ASTM Specification .................................. 4-12
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................................4-12
5. THROUGH-THICKNESS STRENGTH OF ROLLED SECTION FLANGES ................... 5-1
5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................5-1
5.2 Causes of Anisotropic Behavior of Steel............................................................. 5-1
5.3 Typical Through-Thickness Properties................................................................ 5-2
5.4 Evaluation of Welded T-Joint Connections......................................................... 5-5
5.5 Conclusions..........................................................................................................5-8
6. CHARPY V-NOTICH TOUGHNESS OF ROLLED SHAPES AND PLATE..................... 6-1
6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................6-1
6.2 Toughness Surveys ..............................................................................................6-1
6.2.1 Plate ......................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2.2 Wide Flange Shape .................................................................................. 6-3
6.3 Summary and Comparison of CVN Toughness Surveys..................................... 6-9
7. MATERIAL PROPERTIES AT k-AREA REGION OF WIDE FLANGE SHAPES........... 7-1
7.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................7-1
7.2 k-Area Properties of Rolled Shapes..................................................................... 7-1
7.3 Conclusions..........................................................................................................7-5
8. STRENGTH VARIATION IN A913 STEEL ....................................................................... 8-1
8.1 Hardness Survey of Shapes.................................................................................. 8-1
8.2 Notch Toughness .................................................................................................8-2
8.3 Strength Variations ..............................................................................................8-2
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Base Metals and Fracture Table of Contents
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8.4 Conclusions..........................................................................................................8-3
REFERENCES, FEMA REPORTS, SAC REPORTS, AND ACRONYMS ..............................R-1
SAC PHASE II PROJECT PARTICIPANTS ............................................................................. S-1
FEMA-355A
Base Metals and Fracture List of Figures
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LIST OF FIGURES<<
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